The nature of sources and evidence* the range of available sources, both written and archaeological, including ancient writers, official inscriptions, graffiti, wall paintings, statues, mosaics, human and animal remains
* the limitations, reliability and evaluation of sources * the evidence provided by the sources from Pompeii and Herculaneum for: -the eruption -the economy: trade, commerce, industries, occupations -social structure; men, women, freedmen, slaves. local political life -everyday life: leisure activities, food and dining, clothing, health, baths, water, supply and sanitation -public buildings basilicas, temples, fora, theatres, palaestra, amphitheatre -private buildings – villas, houses, shops -influence of Greek and Egyptian cultures: art, architecture, religion - religion: temples, household gods, foreign cults, tombs |
PRIMARY SOURCES FROM POMPEII AND HERCULANEUM
Classical Writing (Literary) Appian (History) Cicero (Speeches from a politician) Cato (Geography) Dio Cassius (History, wrote about the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius) Florus (History) Livy (History) Pliny the Elder (Geography and Travel) Pliny the Younger (Letters writing specifically about the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius as an eye witness) Seneca (Geography, wrote about the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius) Strabo (Geography and Travel) Statius (Poems) Tacitus (History) Vitruvius (Architecture) Ephigraphical Writing (Literary) Graffiti Slogans and Programmata Entertainment programs Tomb epitaphs Dedications in stone and bronze on buildings and statues Inscriptions on jewellery Foundation stones Wax tablets Proclamations Scrolls of papyri (only at Herculaneum) Buildings (Public and Private) (Archaeological) Thermopolium, Caupura Baths, Amphitheatre, and Basilica Temples and streetscapes Private houses/units, Villas and Villa rustica Forum, Building of Eumachia and Macellum Fullonica, Taberna and Pistrinum Odeon and Palaestra Artefacts (Material Remains) Mosaic. A picture or decoration made of different coloured pieces of stone, glass or other material, inlaid to form a simply or elaborate design. Usually mosaics appeared on the floor either inside or outside. Due to their intricate design and beauty they have become famous sources from Pompeii and Herculaneum. Fresco. A painting on either wet or dry fresh lime plaster so that the pigments are absorbed into the layers of the plaster. Usually frescos appeared on i nternal or external walls and incorporated pictures and designs. Due to their detail, mystery and beauty they have become famous sources from Pompeii and Herculaneum. Public water fountains and water pipes. Cooking equipment, eating utensils and ovens. Tools, Weights and measures, Work equipment. Household shrines, statues and busts. Wooden furniture (only at Herculaneum). Farming equipment. Pottery, Jewellery, Glassware and Columns. Organic Plant Products Grain, farming, vineyard and orchard remains. Remains of private gardens. Cooked food remains and meal remains, eg. bread. Oil remains, Wine remains, Perfume remains. Human and Animal Remains Skeletal remains of humans and animals. Plaster and resin cast showing the shape of the body. |
This file is a PDF copy of the KEYNOTE we went through in class. It focuses on the economy through a study of the FORUM.
Again a PDF of our work in class. This will take you on an overview of leisure, buildings and other various sources.
Private houses AND villas to be specific. It is really overkill to summarise EVERY house, so I chose some prominent ones if you remember.
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EVIDENCE PROVIDED BY THE SOURCES
The nature of the eruption governed both what was left behind for archaeologists to dig up, and how it was sealed by the deposits of the volcano.
ALISON E. COOLEY, POMPEII, P. 37
It is premature to say that we understand Pompeii. It is at once the most studied and least understood of sites.
ANDREW WALLACE-HADRILL, HOUSES AND SOCIETY IN POMPEII AND HERCULANEUM, P. 65
Literary Sources
Except for Pliny the Younger’s eye witness accounts of the eruption, literary sources are rare and fragmented. Some that are useful include:
* Greek philosopher Strabo (64BC – 21AD) who is useful for geographical background and historical setting.
* Lucius Annaeus Seneca (4-1BC – 65AD) Roman philosopher
Many of the literary sources available for study have a particular focus of enquiry.
Pliny the younger:
Pliny the Younger is the nephew of Pliny the elder and friend of Tacitus. His works include '‘Letters to Tacitus’ which describe the eruption, the death of his uncle and his own reactions to the disaster. Pliny the Younger experienced the eruption as a teenager and wrote the two letters 25 years later in response to a request by Tacitus.
The letters are useful in a number of ways. They are a valuable primary source, both as a historical and scientific document. The letter covers the actions and deeds of his uncle, Pliny the Elder, commander of roman fleet as well as events as viewed from Misenum, less than 30km from Vesuvius. The description of the eruption and events provides geological clues used by modern Vulcanologists as well as eye witness accounts and personal reactions which give us a different understanding of the eruption.
The 'Letter's provide two geographical viewpoints (Stabiae and Misenum) however he does not mention the overwhelming of Pompeii and Herculaneum. He does not record the year and makes no mention of the tremendous detenation that must have preceded the eruption; it seems strange that an eyewitness would neglect to write so much. The reliability of his letters must also be questioned as he uses second hand accounts of his fathers' death, gathering information from those who were nearhim when he died who were undoubtedly traumatized, and in the employ of the household. There is also no evidence that the letters were written until twenty five years after the eruption. The account is also concerned with celebrating the life, bravery and actions of Pliny the Elder, and therefore the account may be unreliable
The Archaeological record
The archaeological record in Pompeii and Herculaneum is unique. Historians can paint a picture of what everyday life was like in Pompeii, thanks to a wide array of sources available to them. This snapshot of life is not limited, like in formal written histories in antiquity, to the picture presented by men. It provides a true social history - regardless of gender, age, social status and race.
The large amount and the diverse range of sources available in Pompeii and Herculaneum provide authenticity and allow historians to understand the society in a unique way. However, due to neglect and treasure hunting that formed the basis of early excavations, much evidence was compromised and removed. This adds difficulty in interpreting finds.
International teams study the evidence of Pompeii and Herculaneum continually. Modern archaeological projects at Pompeii and Herculaneum often draw conclusions that question widely held concepts about Roman life, ask different questions about the material finds, shift away from certainty towards multiple and varied interpretations, and recognise that the archaeological practices of the past have shaped modern interpretations.
These sources provide us with evidence for:
-the eruption.
-the economy: trade, commerce, industries, occupations,
-social structure; men, women, freedmen, slaves. local political life, ----everyday life: leisure activities, food and dining, clothing, health, baths, water, supply and sanitation,
-public buildings basilicas, temples, fora, theatres, palaestra, amphitheatre,
-private buildings – villas, houses, shops,
-influence of Greek and Egyptian cultures: art, architecture, religion,
- religion: temples, household gods, foreign cults, tombs.
ALISON E. COOLEY, POMPEII, P. 37
It is premature to say that we understand Pompeii. It is at once the most studied and least understood of sites.
ANDREW WALLACE-HADRILL, HOUSES AND SOCIETY IN POMPEII AND HERCULANEUM, P. 65
Literary Sources
Except for Pliny the Younger’s eye witness accounts of the eruption, literary sources are rare and fragmented. Some that are useful include:
* Greek philosopher Strabo (64BC – 21AD) who is useful for geographical background and historical setting.
* Lucius Annaeus Seneca (4-1BC – 65AD) Roman philosopher
Many of the literary sources available for study have a particular focus of enquiry.
Pliny the younger:
Pliny the Younger is the nephew of Pliny the elder and friend of Tacitus. His works include '‘Letters to Tacitus’ which describe the eruption, the death of his uncle and his own reactions to the disaster. Pliny the Younger experienced the eruption as a teenager and wrote the two letters 25 years later in response to a request by Tacitus.
The letters are useful in a number of ways. They are a valuable primary source, both as a historical and scientific document. The letter covers the actions and deeds of his uncle, Pliny the Elder, commander of roman fleet as well as events as viewed from Misenum, less than 30km from Vesuvius. The description of the eruption and events provides geological clues used by modern Vulcanologists as well as eye witness accounts and personal reactions which give us a different understanding of the eruption.
The 'Letter's provide two geographical viewpoints (Stabiae and Misenum) however he does not mention the overwhelming of Pompeii and Herculaneum. He does not record the year and makes no mention of the tremendous detenation that must have preceded the eruption; it seems strange that an eyewitness would neglect to write so much. The reliability of his letters must also be questioned as he uses second hand accounts of his fathers' death, gathering information from those who were nearhim when he died who were undoubtedly traumatized, and in the employ of the household. There is also no evidence that the letters were written until twenty five years after the eruption. The account is also concerned with celebrating the life, bravery and actions of Pliny the Elder, and therefore the account may be unreliable
The Archaeological record
The archaeological record in Pompeii and Herculaneum is unique. Historians can paint a picture of what everyday life was like in Pompeii, thanks to a wide array of sources available to them. This snapshot of life is not limited, like in formal written histories in antiquity, to the picture presented by men. It provides a true social history - regardless of gender, age, social status and race.
The large amount and the diverse range of sources available in Pompeii and Herculaneum provide authenticity and allow historians to understand the society in a unique way. However, due to neglect and treasure hunting that formed the basis of early excavations, much evidence was compromised and removed. This adds difficulty in interpreting finds.
International teams study the evidence of Pompeii and Herculaneum continually. Modern archaeological projects at Pompeii and Herculaneum often draw conclusions that question widely held concepts about Roman life, ask different questions about the material finds, shift away from certainty towards multiple and varied interpretations, and recognise that the archaeological practices of the past have shaped modern interpretations.
These sources provide us with evidence for:
-the eruption.
-the economy: trade, commerce, industries, occupations,
-social structure; men, women, freedmen, slaves. local political life, ----everyday life: leisure activities, food and dining, clothing, health, baths, water, supply and sanitation,
-public buildings basilicas, temples, fora, theatres, palaestra, amphitheatre,
-private buildings – villas, houses, shops,
-influence of Greek and Egyptian cultures: art, architecture, religion,
- religion: temples, household gods, foreign cults, tombs.
sources_-_pliny_to_tacitus.docx |
THE ECONOMY
The economy
• The commercial nature of the cities was based on agricultural production and fishing – wool, olive oil, wine, grain, vegetables, fruit, fish and crustaceans • City markets – Macellum: fish, meat and vegetables; Olitorium: granary; Eumachia Building: possible wool and cloth; itinerant traders and pedlars all over the city on market day, particularly around the forum • Villa rusticae: estates that produced wine and oil, e.g. Villa of Pisanella at Boscoreale • Garum manufacture – fish sauce for flavouring food • Workshops (officinae) – washing and dyeing of wool and laundries, bakeries, tanneries, perfume, pottery, wheelwrights, ironmongers, goldsmiths, silversmiths and carpenters. The importance of craft guilds • Shops (tabernae) – numerous shops for selling foodstuffs as well as hot food snack bars (thermopolia), and numerous wine bars and taverns (cuponae) |
Wine press, Villa of the Mysteries
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POLITICAL LIFE
Asellina's Tavern, Pompeii
"The late drinkers ask you to elect Marcus Cerrinius Vatia eadile. Florus ad Fructus wrote this." - one of many |
• Intense political interest and competition for office indicated by the 2500 political manifestos
• Eligibility for high office: men of honour, virtue and uprightness, as well as an expectation to make generous contributions to the city • The executive comprised a Board of Four (quattuorviri) or two pairs of officials: duoviri and aediles and every five years the magistrates (quinquennial duoviri) conducted the census • Duoviri administered the city (roads, markets, sewerage, the maintenance of order and sponsorship of spectacles and theatre) as well as being responsible for criminal and civil cases • City Council (ordo decurionum) made up of 100 former magistrates (decurions) who held their position for life. Debated on issues affecting the city and gave instructions to Board of Four • Election fever took hold of the city every March with each candidate’s supporters writing slogans and manifestos on city walls. Women played a major role in influencing voters |
SOCIAL STRUCTURE
Almost all of the evidence we have from Pompeii and Herculaneum that relates to artefacts and monuments comes entirely from the middle to upper classes. Material possessions were simple and scarce for the poor.
• Forum in Pompeii – administrative, commercial and religious centre – a paved rectangular area, colonnades, statues, formal inscriptions and public buildings: temples, markets, a basilica (law courts and business transactions) and shrines associated with imperial cult Population and social structure • No definitive figures for total population • Campania – a melting pot of cultures, diverse genetic background • Work of Estelle Lazer and Sara Bisel, based on a small sample, reveal a generally wellnourished and healthy population. Some incidence of age-related diseases and dental problems • Structure of society – freeborn (ingenui), freed slaves (libertus and liberta) and slaves • Wealthy freeborn had a network of friends, clients and dependants. Some freedmen and women very wealthy. Boundaries between freeborn, freed slave and slave were somewhat fluid • Women active in economic, political and religious life • Three prominent women – Julia Felix, Eumachia and Mamia |
Patron-client, salutatio
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PUBLIC BUILDINGS
Temple of Jupiter, Forum of Pompeii
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A map of the towns or forum is a great place to begin revising for this section.
Label the buildings and write a brief description for the function of each building: • Basilica • Forum • temples • Building of Eumachia - Capitoline Triad • Marcellum • Lupanari • Comitium • Palaestra • Bathhouses - (Label them all) - Theatres |
PRIVATE BUILDINGS
The Domus: Key to this syllabus is knowing latin terminology:
• UA good tip s to use a blank house and label the rooms • Use the key latin terms when labelling a room: Atrium, Tablinium, Vestibule, Triclinium, Fauces, culina, Impluvium, Compluvium, Lararium, Porticoe, Alae, Types of Houses - Andrew Wallace-Hadrill categorised houses into 4 distinct types. 1. Shops & Workshops with Pergulae (upper living area) 2. Larger workshop residences (2-7 rooms) 3. The average house (8-13 rooms) 4. Large houses (designed for hospitality, separate living quarters for slaves.) |
Peristyle, House of the Vettii, Pompeii
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INFLUENCE OF GREEK AND EGYPTIAN CULTURES
Tempe of Isis, Pompeii
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A -The frequency of artefacts and monuments to Greek and Egyptian religions not only shows a tolerance of foreign cults but also popularity and intrigue as the citizens, both women and men, flaunted an exotic vice without fear of alienation.
B- It was also a testimony to Rome and its provinces successful expansion into the Mediterranean, reinforcing a reach of power and prestige. C- The Greek factor pays homage to Naples' early history as a settlement of Greek Expansion during the 8th and 7th Centuries BC. A key feature of Graeco - Roman Culture (Augusta Mau) • Frescoes • Mosaics • Buildings - Ornate columns, Doric, Ionian, Conrinthian • Figurines / statues / Gods and Goddesses / igmies • Theatres paintings / frescoes • Merchants from Egypt & Greece • Examples - Alexander Mosaic, Nile Painting with Pygmie |
RELIGION
A - Based on a quantitative study, religion can be considered to be more important in the private dwellings, rather than devotion to politically funded cults and temples.
B - Holistically, the evidence reveals that religion in Pompeii and Herculaneum was a community event; everyone was in some way well versed in religious ceremony - be it in a private family dwelling, neighbourhood or the entire city during a festival. Religion, in addition to public buildings and G+E influences encompasses 2 other main areas: HOUSEHOLD GODS, AND TOMBS HOUSEHOLD GODS
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Bronze genius and penates, Pompeii
Necropolis, Porta Nocera
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